Project Number: S–274

Project Title: Integrated Management of Arthropod Pests of Livestock and Poultry

Period Covered: October 1996 — September 2000

Date of This Report: September 30, 2001

Participants: Watson (Chair), NC; Moon (Secretary) MN; Broce, KS; Burger, NH; Butler, FL; Byford, NM; Campbell, NE; Cilek FL; Dobson, KY, Foil, LA; Gerhardt,TN; Greene, KS; Hall, MO; Hinkle, CA/GA; Hogsette, ARS, FL; Kaufman, NY; Knapp, KY; Krafsur, IA; Lloyd, WY; Lysyk, Alberta CAN; Jones, IL/TN; Meyer, USDA; Mullen, AL; Peterson, ARS, NE; Pitts, PA; Rutz, NY; Scholl, ARS, NE; Schmidtmann, ARS, WY; Sheppard, GA; Steelman, AR; Taylor, ARS, NE; Teel, TX; Thomas NE; Weinzierl, IL; Williams, IN.

Administrative Advisor: Fred Knapp, University of Kentucky.

Brief summary of minutes of annual meeting: http://cipmtest.ent.ncsu.edu/s274/minutes.html>

The current status of livestock and poultry IPM, "Research and extension needs for integrated pest management programs for arthropods of veterinary importance" can be found at (http://www.arsgrin.gov/ars/SoAtlantic/Gainesville/cm_fly/Lincoln.html). Edited by J. A. Hogsette and C. J. Geden, this document represents the work of all member of S-274 among others and covers all commodity groups within Veterinary Entomology.

Project objectives were two-fold; 1) to assess host-parasite-environment interactions that govern arthropod pest abundance and injury levels. 2) To design environmentally safe arthropod pest management systems to improve production efficiency and implement transfer to producers.

Ticks: Recently two tick species have become a concern, Amblyomma maculatum the gulf coast tick and Amblyomma cajennense, the cayenne tick. Distribution of the gulf coast tick has expanded its range into northeastern Kansas. Using PCR techniques to isolate and amplify mitochondrial DNA from the Gulf Coast tick is being used to measure the genetic similarity of this species from Texas to Kansas. This extended geographic distribution of this tick causes considerable variation in the seasonal life cycle affecting the subsequent timing for control practices. Prevalent habitat for the cayenne tick is a mixed brush habitat typical of the south central and central states. During drought conditions cattle increased browsing in tick habitat and served as significant hosts for this tick. This relationship assures maintenance of populations of the Cayenne tick under adverse conditions, and potentially increases their economic impact on cattle under such conditions. Teixeira de Moura (1997) developed an artificial membrane for Cayenne tick feeding studies.

Distribution surveys were initiated for Amblyomma americanum, Dermacentor variabilis and Ixodes scapularis and their hosts, particularly white-tailed deer. An extensive five year study of the ecology and distribution of Dermacentor variabilis define adult seasonal and spatial host seeking activity (Burg 2001). Populations of Ixodes scapularis are modulated by drought in Illinois (Jones and Kitron 2000). The lone star tick, A. americanum, is a persistent pest in the southeastern states (Gerhardt et al. 2000). Recently incriminated in the transmission of Ehrlichioses and Borellia lonestari, a lyme-like disease, the distribution and seasonal abundance of lone star ticks are epidemiologically important.

Tick distribution is dependent on available habitat and hosts, white-tailed deer (Schmidtmann et al. 1997). Taking advantage of the feeding behavior of hosts, Pound et al. (2000), developed a deer-feeding device for the topical treatment of deer to control ticks. The feeder is currently being evaluated for the management of Ixodes scapularis, the blacklegged tick, in Lyme disease endemic areas. Host finding by I. scapularis is stimulated by the presents of kairomones produced by white-tailed deer (Carroll et al. 1996, 1998). Browsing habits of the white-tailed deer affects the dispersal of blacklegged ticks (Carroll and Schmidtmann 1996ab). Attachment sites of I. scapularis on white-tailed deer and horses suggest that browsing habits also influence the distribution of ticks on the host (Schmidtmann et al. 1998).

A revision was completed of the Hybomitra sonomensis complex of western horse flies, including analysis of geographic variation in H. phaenops, and keys to stages and adults. Work also progressed on the Tabanus lineola group, the T. nigrovittatus complex, the T. mularis complex, and all Chrysops of North America. Many are variable geographically, suggesting presence of cryptic species. A key to Tabanidae of North America was constructed, updating work originally conducted during the 1930s and 1940s (Burger 2001).

A reassessment of the Culicoides taxonomy has elevated C. sonorensis to species level (Holbrook et al. 2000). North American bibliography of Culicoides was assembled, complete with distribution maps and species lists, it appears there are 7-10 economically important species for livestock (Schmidtmann et al. 1998, Weinland et al. 2000). Culicoides populations were monitored in pastured beef cattle and a captive white-tailed deer herd following an outbreak of bluetongue/epizootic hemorrhagic disease (Anderson et al. 1999). At the cattle site, 16 Culicoides spp. were collected including C. obsoletus-sanguisuga, C. venustus, and C. stellifer. At the nearby deer site 14 species of Culicoides were collected including; C. sonorensis, C. stellifer and C. biguttatus. Unseasonably warm winters promoted Culicoides activity, which was contributing to disease transmission. Culicoides collected in Illinois are being tested for EHD and BT following EHD outbreak.

Microhabitat may directly effect population dynamics and distribution of Culicoides. The relationship between dissolved salts, aquatic habitats and soil chemistry influence populations of Culicoides variipennis (Schmidtmann in prep, Schmidtmann et al. 2000).

High rainfall contributed to a black fly outbreak in Florida (Butler and Hogsette 1998).

Stable Flies (Stomoxys calcitrans): Stable flies utilize a variety of oviposition sites on the farm and in the community including bedding materials, feedlot waste, yard and lawn clippings, and compost bins (Skoda et al 1996, Broce and Haas 1999). Similar to other muscoid flies, stable fly larvae depend in part on environmental factors and bacteria to complete development (Lysyk et al. 1999, Carlson et al. 2000).

Stable fly movement may be local or regional. Dispersal of stable flies on major weather fronts is under investigation (Jones et al.1998). Peak populations occurred in western KS in late June and early July after a rainy period. Stable flies disperse between dairies in Florida in February with associated wind fronts. Lysyk (1998) developed life history parameters for stable fly a simulation model.

Stable fly attack induces a variety of stress and anxiety related changes in the physiology and behavior of the target animals (Colwell et al 1997). These changes have a direct effect on the feeding behavior of cattle impacting weight gains causing economic injury (Catangui et al. 1997). Stable flies in summer reduced growth rates of older, spring-born grazing steers more than younger, summer-born calves (Campbell et al. 2001c). Stable flies reduced growth rate of grazing steers by 0.2 kg/day/ steer during three 84 d trials. After grazing, the steers were fed out to slaughter. No compensatory gain occurred after the stable fly stress was removed.

Horn fly (Haematobia irritans): Insecticide resistant horn flies disperse several miles between herds in a few hours. Overwintering pupae survival increases with dung pat temperature in the fall. The effect of temperature on postdiapause eclosion of horn flies, was examined in the laboratory and field (Lysyk 1999). Early emerging horn flies produced progeny that entered spring diapause and did not emerge until fall producing a fall diapause generation and spring diapausing flies did not survive the winter. A model was developed to predict spring emergence from diapause. Dung pat microflora and conspecific bacteria impact the growth and development of horn fly larvae (Perotti et al. 2001). Reliability of population estimates of adult horn fly obtained using upper body, sunny side, and whole-body sample units were examined (Lysyk 2000).

Endophytes commonly associated with tall-fescue may be important to the ecology of pasture flies, particularly the horn fly. Horn fly survival was examined following treatment of dung pats with endophyte alkaloids (Dougherty 1998). Elevation effects the distribution of horn fly in Nebraska and Wyoming (Kaufman et al. 1999c). Simulated experiments to explore how sampling frequency could influence estimates of insect lower developmental thresholds made from field studies (Legg et al. 1998).

Cattle hair density and sebum production significantly impacts susceptibility to horn fly (Steelman et al. 1997). Brahman cattle were least susceptible with 2390 hairs per cm2. Host size also influences horn fly predilection (Steelman et al. 1996).

Olfactometer studies conduced at the University of Florida evaluated the effects of repellants and attractants on host finding for horn fly, house fly, stable fly, mosquitoes and ticks (Butler 2000). In addition to existing practices, the relative attraction to colored light emitters may be developed into an effective fly management tool (Burkett et al. 1998, Butler and Okine 1999).

Beetle Pests:

Darkling beetle, Alphitobius diaperinus are competent reservoirs for several disease agents of poultry, Salmonella typhimurium, Infectious bursal disease and E. coli (McAllister et al. 1996), and turkey coronavirus (Watson et al. 2000). Direct and indirect florescent antibody and histochemical analysis were used to determine the potential of darkling beetles and house fly to transmit coronavirus to turkeys. TCV transmission by darkling beetles was limited to within one hour of beetle exposure (Watson et al. 2000). House flies readily transmit TCV for 9 hours following initial exposure.

The poultry tapeworm, Choanotaenia infundibulum was discovered to be transmitted by house flies and hide beetles. Raillietina cesticillus was found exclusively in hide beetles. Incidence in chicken increased from 9% in the spring and 23% in the summer. Laboratory transmission studies demonstrated that 22% of house flies became infected confirming high incidence in summer collected flies.

House fly (Musca domestica):

Gene flow and colonization patterns and dynamics in house flies was studied using mitochondrial DNA patterns to investigate genetic variation among house flies sampled worldwide at micro and macro geographic scale (Krafsur et al. 2000). Greatest diversity was found among African haplotypes whereas the least diversity occurred in North America. Haplotype frequencies differed significantly within continents where correlations were high and between continents where correlations were low, suggesting random nature. Diversity among populations inside closed egg layer barns was greater in the barns than in outside populations, and one haplotype was unique to the barns. There was significant gene flow among barns (Marquez et al., 2001).

The diversity of bacteria in the gut of the house fly is environmentally specific and may be useful in identifying the origin of nuisance pests or disease (Zurek et al. 2000, Zurek et al. 2001). Studies of pathogenic bacteria associated with adult house flies suggest commodity associated trends. Flies from Kansas swine farms were contaminated with pathogenic bacteria; an average of 90% of the flies carried internally Salmonella, Proteus, Shigella, Pseudomonas or coliforms. Flies associated with Florida restaurants yielded Acinetobacter baumann, Bacillus thuringiensis, B. cereus, B. pumilus, Enterobacter sakazakii, Escherichia coli, Shigella sonnei and Staphylococcus saprophyticus. Pathogenic E. coli (O157H7) was isolated from house fly pools and fecal samples collected from cattle in eastern Tennessee. The role of filth breeding insects in the dissemination and transmission of bacteria is important to the development of pest management strategies.

Spot cards and sticky cards are an effective means of monitoring house fly densities within dairy barns and poultry houses (Rutz and Watson 1998). Such sampling, relative to nuisance issues, have not been standardized. Survey techniques developed in Minnesota to assess tolerance by rural residents for house flies around their residences. Random samples of 50 residences, stratified by distance from presumed fly sources, were simultaneously surveyed by questionnaire and trapped to assess fly abundance. Approximately 75% of the residents rated their environments as having "too many" or "way too many" flies when catch rates on white cylinder traps exceeded 3–5 flies per trap per day. Further research in standardized fly sampling is needed.

Face fly (Musca autumnalis): A review of all recent literature on the face fly bionomics was published in 1997 (Krafsur and Moon 1997). Differences in hydrocarbon profiles of reproductive and diapausing face flies were established (Jurenka et al. 1998). Head capsule pteridines were measured to provide estimates of fly age (Krafsur et al 1999a, 1999b). Face fly diapause dynamics indicate flies do not use daily temperatures in late summer, but instead cue on photoperiod for diapause (Krafsur et al. 1999b).

Lice: Relatively unique among arthropods of veterinary importance, the lice and mites are often active during the cooler months. Durden et al. (1997) recorded twenty-five species of sucking lice on wild and domestic animals in Tennessee. Establishing predilection sites for four species of cattle lice, Haematopinus eurysternus, Linognathus vituli, Solenopotes capillatus and Bovicola bovis simplifies sampling strategies for efficacy studies (Watson et al. 1998). The biology of poultry ectoparasites was reviewed in Hogsette and Jacobs (1998), and the potential of biological control of these pests (Hogsette 1999).

Mites: Generally thought to be a problem for small flocks, the northern fowl mite, Ornithonyssus sylvarium may become established in commercial breeder flocks and caged layers. Mullens et al. (2000) has developed an egg-based sampling system to monitor northern fowl mite densities in California caged layers in mite a dispersal study.

Integrated pest management relies on a multifaceted approach to pest management. Broadly, IPM includes cultural, biological, mechanical, and chemical control measures in a scheme to achieve pest management. The sterile insect techniques developed by the US screwworm eradication program represents a major success in the history of Entomology (Krafsur and Lindquist 1996, Krafsur 1998). The livestock and poultry industry faces severe pest management challenges. The industry falls within the definition a minor use group when compared with other commodities such as cotton for example. As a result, few chemical companies develop new products for use in the livestock and poultry industry leaving few chemical options. Often insecticides of a similar class are used for several years and resistance develops within the insect population. Pyrethroids are most common and organophosphates are in review under the Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA). IPM plays an important role in providing producers with environmentally safe pest management options.

Monitoring insecticide resistance is essential to providing alternatives to producers. Insecticide resistance is most common in the house fly and horn fly populations. However stable flies are also being monitored closely (Marcon et al. 1997). Kaufman et al. (2001) has been monitoring resistance in the house fly population in NY dairies. Compared to resistance surveys conducted a decade ago, cyfluthrin resistance has increased dramatically in NY dairies in recent years. Similarly Scott et al. 2000 closely monitored resistance house flies associated with the poultry industry. Pyrethroid resistance continues to be a problem although toxicity of pyrethrin esters are relatively stable (Sheppard and Swedland 2000).

Pyrethroid resistance in the horn fly population has been problematic for more than a decade in the US and recently Argentina (Torres and Sheppard 1996, Torres et al. 1996, Sheppard and Torres 1998). Two organophosphate compounds, tetrachlorvinphos (Rabon) and diazinon have been used as an alternative to pyrethroids in recent years (Kaufman et al. 1999a). Diazinon ear tags are the only chemical alternative for the management of pyrethroid resistant horn flies. However the development of resistance to this compound is probable (Barros et al. 2001). During a 4-yr study of organophosphate tags, 20% diazinon tags declined from >20 wks to just 1 wk of effective control. Resistance to diazinon, fenthion, ethion, pirimiphos-methyl, and tetrachlorvinphos was observed. Rabon is under evaluation by the EPA and diazinon is restricted to ear tag use only.

Ticks: The use of medicated corn baits for treatment of deer has been under investigation in Texas (Pound et al. 1996a). Similarly in Tennessee, Gerhardt reported lone star tick eggs masses were lower in areas where deer were medicated with ivermectin treated corn at rates of 500 ug/22.5 kg and 250 ug/22.5 kg compared with an untreated control group. Ratios of 2.3 to 1 egg masses to adult female ticks were found in the control group, and 1.3 to 1 and 1.2 to 1 were found in the treatment groups, respectively. Pyriproxifen, an IGR-like compound significantly reduced egg viability in engorged lone star ticks (Teel et al. 1996). Treatments of 1 to 3-d-old eggs were effective in reducing hatch and larval survivorship. Estimates of subsequent feeding success of adults treated as engorged nymphs, show reduced capacities of attachment, engorgement and reproduction (Donahue et al. 1997). Silt screen barriers reduce dispersing of I. scapularis in pastures (Carroll and Schmidtmann 1996a). Analysis of white-tailed deer glandular karimones may contribute to a unique tick management tool (Carroll et al. 1998). The presence of aerobic bacteria in tick tissues suggests research on the microbial control of black legged ticks may hold promise (Martin and Schmidtmann 1998).

The control and management of horse and deer flies is difficult because the flies are only on the host for a limited time, resulting in sublethal exposures to insecticides. The immature stages of the tabanids are solitary insects with few natural enemies. As a result the management of these biting flies is currently focusing on the use of trapping technologies. A tabanid trap, developed in Oklahoma by Epps has shown great promise in the management of these flies. The Epps trap without bait was evaluated in conjunction with a carbon dioxide baited Malaise trap for their effectiveness in horse fly management. Targeting Tabanus abactor, one of the predominant species in OK, the Epps trap caught 155 and 57.5 flies/trap/day over a two year period. The CO2 baited malaise trap caught 129 and 40 flies/trap/day during the same period, respectively. Yearly differences were thought to be drought induced rather than trapping out the population. Modified box traps were evaluated in Louisiana (Foil 1999).

Muscoid flies: Muscidae

Conservation of biological control agents may be achieved by partial cleanout of poultry houses or by leaving a pad to assist manure drying (Mullens et al. 1996a). Under conditions in California poultry houses this practice was successful for pteromalid parasitoids, but reduced for Macrochelid mites, Carcinops beetles and Xylocoris bugs (Mullens et al. 1996b). Proper manure management and the conservation of beneficial arthropods in the poultry house aids fly management (Mullens et al. 2001).

The black soldier fly, Hermitia illuscens, has promise for the competitive exclusion of the house fly in poultry and swine waste in the southern states. A native insect, the black soldier fly, is a non-pest species that does not feed in the adult stage and is not attracted to human habitation (Tomberlin and Sheppard 2000). Larvae of the black soldier fly compete with the house fly for available resources in poultry and swine manure. Black soldier fly larvae reduces manure volume 50% converting nitrogen into harvestable biomass to be used as feed stuffs for ranaculture, aquaculture or poultry and swine feed (Sheppard and Newton 1996, Newton and Sheppard 2000). If harvested and sold as animal feed, soldier flies could add $2.30 income per hog.

Hydrotaea aenescens, the black dump fly, may benefit the management of house flies. The larval stage of the black dump fly is predatory, readily feeding on house fly larvae. Manure condition may be a limiting factor in establishment of H. aenescens (Farkas et al.1998, Hogsette and Jacobs 1997, 1999). Although usually associated with poultry and swine manure, efforts to establish the black dump fly in dairy manure has potential (Sowerby and Hogsette 1997, Hogsette et al. 1998). Given sufficient population densities, adult black dump flies may frequent human habitations.

Interest in the suppression of horn fly lead to the importation and release of dung beetles including Onthophagus taurus, Onthophagus gazella and Onthophagus depressus. Hunter et al. (1996) described the life cycle and behavior of O. depressus under laboratory and field conditions.

Wolbachia are obligate, intracellular symbionts that manipulate their host’s reproduction through embryonic cytoplasmic incompatibility (Dobson et al. 2001). Dobson suggests that releases of insects that harbor appropriate Wolbachia infections may suppress or eliminate a stable fly population.

Reviews of Biological Control programs for filth flies were published in Canada and Nebraska (Floate et al. 2001, Lysyk and Floate 2001, Lysyk 2001, Campbell and Thomas 1998, Campbell et al. 2001).

New technologies in trapping support IPM programs. Efficiency of different traps in Kansas swine barns varied with type of ventilation system (passive or forced). House flies and Hydrotaea (= Ophyra) sp. were the most common species and occasionally the only species present in confined swine operations. Relative abundance varied according to type of waste handling system. House design and air-flow in poultry houses directly affect the distribution of house flies and should be considered in trap placement (Hogsette 1998a, Geden et al. 1999). Attractants in conjunction with stable fly traps were evaluated (Cilek, 1999). Large sticky ribbons effectively captured millions of flies in caged layer houses (Kaufman et al. 2001).

Isolates of the entomopathogenic fungi, Beauveria bassiana, have been evaluated for the management of darkling beetles (Geden et al. 1998). These and similar fungi may provide long term impact on pest populations. Predator conservation is particularly important to poultry IPM programs (Mullens et al. 2001). The hister beetle, Carcinops pumilio and the darkling beetle are common inhabitants of poultry houses. Vector issues related to darkling beetle make C. pumilio the preferred predatory species, particularly for the biological control of house fly (Kaufman et al 2000d). Abundant darkling beetles populations inhibit the establishment of C. pumilio (Watson et al. 2001).

Manure management is integral to livestock IPM programs. Fly pupal traps and core- sampling techniques were used to evaluate feedlot sanitation programs (Skoda et al. 1996). Following scheduled manure clean out, and mounding of manure reduced stable and house fly populations on feedlots by half (Thomas et al. 1996). In poultry production litter and manure is routinely land applied as organic fertilizer. House flies may complete development in soil with minimal manure supplements (Hogsette 1996). Survival of house flies and darkling beetles was evaluated following incorporation of land applied manure and litter in New York and North Carolina. House fly emergence from field soils was minimally impacted in gravel loam soils and adult fly emergence occurred 10 to 17 days after application (Watson et al. 1998). Preliminary data on darkling beetle survival in clay soils suggests incorporation had a significant impact on beetle survival.

Pitts et al. (1998) tilled manure beds under caged laying hens and found that composting increased bed temperatures above 50 °C, decreased moisture content below 40%, and virtually eliminated larval house flies. Moon et al. (2001) studied the effects of composting on the subsequent nutritional value of poultry manure for larval house flies. Composting in a windrow system reduced the manure’s fly production potential by 90%.

Since the West Nile Virus outbreak in New York in 1999, the disease has spread south and west. Vectored by Culex mosquitoes, particularly Culex pipiens, this disease may have serious implications for livestock producers using liquid waste systems. Moon reported the addition of straw or mat covers on surfaces of liquid hog manure storage tanks (used to mitigate odor and gas emissions) did not facilitate filth fly breeding, but did permit colonization by Culex mosquitoes. Recommendations for lagoon mosquito management include steep sides, reduced bank vegetation, eliminate floating debris and larvacide with Bacillus sphaericus if necessary.

A study of the effect of substrate paint choice on efficacy of selected premise sprays for house fly control at Cornell indicated that painting did not change efficacy of dimethoate, but did change efficacy of different pyrethroid formulations. Olfactometer studies at University of Georgia and Florida indicated that BSF larval odors repel ovipositing house flies. Two experimental repellents provided 72 hours protection from stable flies on Nebraska steers and horses.

Insecticides used to control house fly were tested for toxicity to black soldier fly at University of Georgia. Their larvae were as sensitive to Larvadex and Pyriproxyfen as susceptible house flies, and soldier fly adults were quite sensitive to three different pyrethroids used as premise sprays.

Informative web-based documents can be found at http://www.nysipm.cornell.edu/ (Rutz et al. 2000, Kaufman et al. 2000abc, Waldron et al. 2000ab). The Poultry Meat Birds Pest Management Alliance was developed in CA and identified 4 areas of pesticide use that are of regulatory concern, including FQPA insecticides. A work plan was designed with the two largest poultry production companies in California to develop and demonstrate cost-effective alternatives to the insecticides currently in use. Monitoring, alternative control strategies and manure/litter management techniques were shown to reduce use of methomyl based fly baits on a fryer breeder farm, and reduce the number of fly sprays used on a fryer and turkey farm. Hinkle and Hickle (1999) published a through evaluation of the pest management and pesticide use profile of the California caged layer industry. Similarly pest and pesticide use surveys were conduced in North Carolina and New York in Swine, Poultry, Dairy and Horse industry groups. Data collected in these surveys will used to evaluate progress of NCIPM and NYSIPM programs.

Abundance and effects of stable flies on pastured cattle indicate the stable fly problem is much more extensive than previously recognized. Practical control strategies and tactics are not yet available to protect grazing cattle herds from stable flies. Differences in regional patterns of stable fly abundance mean that pest management programs need to be tailored regionally. As a result of these needs, stable fly ecology and management has developed into a new regional project, entitled "Sources, dispersal and management of stable flies on beef and dairy cattle." This research is vital to developing an IPM system for the stable fly on range and pastured cattle. The IPM approach already developed for feedlot and dairy systems might be applicable to the pasture and rangeland if the source(s) of stable flies were known. Unfortunately, source(s) of the stable flies on grazing lands are unknown, and existing control methods are ineffective. This new project addresses this issue in an effort to provide a system for control of stable flies on range and pasture cattle, reducing chronic losses in comfort and efficiency of the beef and dairy industries.

House flies and litter beetles are associated with animal confinement facilities because they live and breed in the manure, spoiled feeds and other organic materials on the farm. Management of manure and the insects associated with manure poses a challenge to poultry and livestock systems. Natural enemies (parasites and competitors) and cultural methods (soil incorporation, composting, liquid storage) are being developed to minimize production of manure inhabiting insects, but needs for improvement remain substantial. The role of filth breeding insects in the dissemination and transmission of foodborne bacteria is important to the development of pest management strategies intended to limit the spread of bacteria within the farm, and between farms and the community. Development of surveillance methods and community standards for nuisance house flies will better equip facility managers and sanitarians to assess house fly problems. These topics are the focus of a new regional project under review entitled "Insect and Manure Management: Impact on Nuisance Factors and Food Safety". Clearly manure and pest management is essential to reducing nuisance issues in the community. Understanding the role of these insects in the dissemination of foodborne pathogens may provide insight into the management of these bacteria in the pre-harvest interval. In this project we propose to evaluate manure management relative to pathogens, filth flies, litter beetles and other insects within the commodity and geographical region.

Anderson, R. R., G. R. Mullen, J. C. Wright, M. K. Causey, S. Cotney. G. H. D’Andrea, and L. Li. 1999. Hemorrhagic disease: cause of die-off in white-tailed deer. Highlights Agric. Res. 46: 17-18.

Barros, A.T.M., M.W. Alison, Jr., and L.D. Foil. 1999a. Evaluation of a yearly insecticidal ear tag rotation for control of pyrethroid-resistant horn flies (Diptera: Muscidae). Vet. Parasitol. 1570: 1-9.

Barros, A.T.M., E.Andress, M.E. Doscher, and L.D. Foil. 1999b. Evaluation of chlorfennapyr ear tag efficacy and susceptibility of horn flies to chlorfenapyr. Southwest. Entomol. 24: 331-334.

Barros, A.T.M., J. Ottea, D. Sanson, and L. Foil. 2001. Horn Fly (Diptera: Muscidae) Resistance to Organophosphate Insecticides. Veterinary Parasitology. 2021: 1-14.

Burger, John F. 2001. A review of the Hybomitra sonomensis group (Diptera: Tabanidae) in western North America, with emphasis on geographic variation in adult Hybomitra phaenops. Entomological News 112: 22-30.

Butler, J. F. 2000. A multichoice olfactometer for blood feeding flies and mosquitoes with notes on new to science attractants and repellents. Symposia, 2000 American Mosquito Control Association, Atlantic City, NJ. January 2000, ESA Thomas Say Foundation in press

Byford, R. L., M. E. Craig, S. M. DeRouen, M. D. Kimball, D.G. Morrison,W. E. Wyatt, and L. D. Foil. 1999. Influence of insecticide treatments on resistance in the horn fly (Diperta:Muscidae). International for Parasitology. 29: 125-135.

Campbell, J. B. & G.D. Thomas. 1998. A Review of research on biological control of livestock insects in Nebraska. Agric. Res. Div. Univ. of Nebr. Res. Bull. 322. 14 pp.

Campbell, J. B. & G.D. Thomas. 1999. The economics and control of insects affecting beef cattle in Nebraska (Northern Great Plains). Univ. of Nebr. Coop. Ext. Misc. Publ. 40. 14 pp.

Campbell, J. B., S.R. Skoda, D.R. Berkebile and G.D. Thomas. 2001a. Research on stable flies and house flies at Nebraska Agric. Res. Div. University of Nebr. Res. Bull. 341. 22 pp.

Campbell, J. B., D. J. Boxler & R. L. Davis. 2001b. Comparative efficacy of several insecticides for control of cattle lice (Mallophaga: Trichodectidae and Anoplura: Haematopinidae). Vet. Parasit. 96: 155-164.

Campbell, J. B., S. R. Skoda, D. R. Berkebile, D. J. Boxler, G. D. Thomas, D. C. Adams & R. Davis. 2001c. Effects of stable flies (Diptera: Muscidae) on weight gains of grazing yearling cattle. J. Econ. Entomol. 94: 780-783.

Carroll, J. F. and Schmidtmann, E. T. 1996a. Silt fencing as a barrier to the dispersal of Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) into pastures. J. Med. Entomol. 33: 921-925.

Carroll, J. H. and Schmidtmann, E. T. 1996b. Dispersal of blacklegged tick (Acari: Ixodidae) nymphs and adults at the woods-pasture interface. J. Med. Entomol. 33: 554-558.

Carroll, J. F., G. D. Mills, Jr., and E. T. Schmidtmann. 1996. Field and laboratory responses of adult Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) to kairomones produced by white-tailed deer. J. Med. Entomol. 33: 640-644.

Carroll, J. F., G. D. Mills, Jr., and E. T. Schmidtmann. 1998. Patterns of activity of host-seeking adult Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae) and host-produced kairomones. J. Med. Entomol. 35: 11-15.

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Cilek, J. E. 1999. Evaluation of substances to increase adult Stomoxys calcitrans (Diptera: Muscidae) collections of Alsynite cylinder traps in north Florida. J. Med. Entomol. 36: 605-609.

Cupp, E. W., M. S. Cupp, J. M. Ribeiro, and S. E. Kunz. 1998. Blood-feeding strategy of Haematobia irritans (Diptera: Muscidae). J. Med. Entomol. 35: 591-595.

Dobson, S. L., E. J. Marsland, and W. Rattanadechakul. 2001. Wolbachia-induced cytoplasmic incompatibility in single- and superinfected strains of Aedes albopictus (Asian tiger mosquito). J. Med. Entomol. 38:382-387.

Dobson, S. L., and W. Rattanadechakul. Accepted. A novel technique for removing Wolbachia infections from Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae). J. Med. Ent.

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Hogsette, J. A. 1996. Development of House Flies, Musca domestica L., in Sand Containing Varying Amounts of Manure Solids and Moisture. J. Econ. Entomol. 89: 940-945.

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Hogsette. J. A. 1998. Fly breeding in livestock manure. Proceedings: Managing Manure in Harmony with the Environment & Society, Iowa State Center, Scheman Building, Ames, Iowa, February 10-12, 1998 (Abstract).

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Hogsette, J. A. & R. D. Jacobs. 1999. Failure of Hydrotaea aenescens, a larval predator of the house fly, Musca domestica L., to establish in wet poultry manure on a commercial farm in Florida, USA. Med. Vet. Entomol. 13: 349-354.

Hogsette, J. A. and H. R. Wilson. 1999. Effects on commercial broiler chicks of constant exposure to ultraviolet light from insect traps. Poult. Sci. 78: 324-326.

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Hogsette, J. A. & J. Jacob. 2000. Dealing with sticktight fleas, pp. 11. In J. Jacob [ed.], Poultry Letter, University of Florida, Cooperative Extension Service, Department of Animal Sciences (August).

Hogsette, J. A., R. Farkas, R. Ripa and C. Arancibia. 2000. Hydrotaea aenescens, a larval predator of the house fly: a summary of recent research, pp. 391. In D. L. Gazzoni [ed.], Proceedings, XXI International Congress of Entomology, Foz do Iguassu, Brazil. August 20-26 (Abstract).

Holbrook, F. R, Tabachnick, W. J., Schmidtmann, E. T., McKinnon, C. N., Bobian R. J., and Grogan, W. L. 2000. Sympatry in the Culicoides variipennis complex (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae): a taxonomic reassessment. J. Med. Entomol. 37: 65-76.

Holste, J. E., L. L. Smith, J. A. Hair, J. L. Lancaster, J. E. Lloyd, W. K. Langholff, R. A. Barrick and J. S. Eagleson. 1997. Eprinomectin: A novel avermectin for control of lice in all classes of cattle. Vet. Parasitol. 73: 153-161.

Holste, J. E., D. D. Colwell, R. Kumar, J. E. Lloyd, N. P. M. Pinkall, M. A. Sierra, J. W. Waggonerm, W. K. Langholff, R. A. Barrick, and J. S. Eagleson. 1998. Efficacy of eprinomectin against Hypoderma spp. in cattle. Am. J. Vet. Res. 59: 56-58.

Jones, K., Kelsey, T. W., Nordstrom, P. A., Wilson, L. L., Maretzki, A. N. and Pitts, C. W. 2000. Neighbors' perceptions of animal agriculture. The Professional Animal Scientist. 16:105-110.

Jones, C. J, and U. D. Kitron. 2000. Populations of Ixodes scapularis (Acari:Ixodidae) are modulated by drought at a Lyme disease focus in Illinois. J. Med. Entomol. 37: 408-415.

Kaufman, P. E., J. E. Lloyd, R. Kumar and T. J. Lysyk. 1999a. Horn Fly Susceptibility to Diazinon, Fenthion and Permethrin at Selected Elevations in Wyoming. J. Agric. Urb. Entomol. 16: 141-157.

Kaufman, P. E., P. J. Scholl, and D. A. Rutz. 1999b. Dose Confirmation Study of the 1% Nonaqueous Injectable Formulation of Moxidectin Against Naturally-acquired Infestations of Cattle Lice on Cattle in New York. Pestic. Sci. 55: 919-922.

Kaufman, P. E., J. E. Lloyd, R. Kumar, J. B. Campbell and D. J. Boxler. 1999c. The Differences Between Horn Fly Densities on Cattle Pastured in Wyoming and Nebraska as Possibly Influenced by Elevation. Southwest Entomol. 24: 115-121.

Kaufman , P. E., D. A. Rutz, and J.K. Waldron. 2000a. Common pest flies found in the urban/rural environment and their biological control agents. Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. (Fact sheet).

Kaufman, P.E., D. A. Rutz, and C.W. Pitts. 2000b. Pest management recommendations for poultry. Cornell University, Penn State University Cooperative Extension Publication.

Kaufman, P.E., D. A. Rutz, and C.W. Pitts. 2000c. Pest management recommendations for sheep, goats & swine. Cornell University, Penn State University Cooperative Extension Publication.

Kaufman, P. E., S. J. Long, D. A. Rutz, and C. S. Glenister. 2000d. Evaluation of Prey- and Density-Mediated Dispersal in Carcinops pumilio (Erichson) (Coleoptera: Histeridae). J. Med. Entomol. 37: 929-932.

Kaufman, P.E., C.W. Pitts, and D. A. Rutz. 2000e. Pest Management Recommendations for Horses. Cornell University, Penn State University Cooperative Extension Publication.

Kaufman, P.E. Dairy Pest Management, Arthropods. In D. Pimentel, ed. Encyclopedia of Pest Management. Marcel Dekker, Inc. [accepted 4/00], projected publication 12/01.

Kaufman, P. E., S. J. Long, D. A. Rutz, and J. K. Waldron. 2001a. Parasitism Rates of Muscidifurax raptorellus and Nasonia vitripennis (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) after Individual and Paired Releases in New York Poultry Facilities. J. Econ. Entomol. 94: 593-598.

Kaufman, P. E., S. J. Long, D. A. Rutz, and C. S. Glenister. 2001b. Larval Production from Field-Collected Carcinops pumilio (Coleoptera: Histeridae) Following Three Starvation Periods. J. Med. Entomol.38: 278-281.

Kaufman, P.E., D. A. Rutz, M. E. Doscher, and R. Albright. 2001c. Efficacy of Chlorfenapyr (AC 303630) Experimental Pour-On and CyLence Formulations Against Naturally Acquired Lice Infestations on Cattle in New York. Vet. Parasit.97: 123-129.

Kaufman, P.E., J.G. Scott and D.A. Rutz, 2001d. Monitoring insecticide resistance in house flies from New York dairies. Pest Manag. Sci. 57: 514-521.

Kaufman, P.E., D. A. Rutz and S. Frisch. 2001e. Sticky Traps for Large Scale House Fly (Diptera: Muscidae) Trapping in New York Poultry Facilities. J. Agric. Urb. Entomol. 18: 43-49.

Kaufman, P.E., J.G. Scott and D.A. Rutz. 2001f. Monitoring Insecticide Resistance in House Flies from New York Dairies. Pest Manag. Sci. (in press)

Kaufman, P. E., S. J. Long and D. A. Rutz. 2001g. Impact of exposure length and pupal source on Muscidifurax raptorellus and Nasonia vitripennis (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) parasitism in a New York Poultry Facility. J. Econ. Entomol. 94: 998-1003.

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Krafsur, E.S. 1998. Sterile insect technique for suppressing and eradicating insect populations: 55 years and counting. J. Agr. Entomol. 15: 303-317.

Krafsur, E.S., A. L. Rosales, and Y. Kim. 1999a. Age structure of overwintered face fly (Diptera: Muscidae) populations estimated by pterin concentrations and ovarian dynamics. Med. Vet. Entomol. 13: 41–47

Krafsur, E.S., R. D. Moon, Y. Kim, A. L. Rosales. 1999b. Dynamics of diapause recruitment in autumnal face fly (Diptera: Muscidae) populations as inferred from gonotrophic, fat body, and pterin based age distributions. Med. Vet. Entomol. 13: 337–348.

Krafsur, E.S., N. L. Bryant, J. G. Marquez and N. T. Griffiths. 2000. Genetic distances among North American, British, and West African house fly populations of Musca domestica L. Biochem. Genetics 38: 275-284.

Krafsur, E.S. 2001. The sterile insect technique. In Dekker Encyclopedia of Pest Mangement. D. Pimentel (ed.). Marcell Dekker Inc. in press.

Legg, D. E., J. M. Struttmann, S. M. VanVlett and J. E. Lloyd. 1998. Bias and variability in lower developmental thresholds estimated from field studies. J. Econ. Entomol. 91: 891-898.

Lysyk TJ. 1998. Relationships between temperature and life-history parameters of Stomoxys calcitrans (Diptera: Muscidae). J. Med. Entomol. 35: 107–119.

Lysyk, T. J. 2000a. Comparison of sample units for estimating population abundance and rates of change of adult horn fly, Haematobia irritans (Diptera: Muscidae). J. Med. Entomol. 37: 299-307.

Lysyk, T. J. 2000b. Relationships between temperature and life history parameters of Muscidifurax raptor (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae). Environ. Entomol. 29: 596 - 605.

Lysyk, T. J. 2000c. Relationships between temperature and life history parameters of Muscidifurax zaraptor (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae). Environ. Entomol. in press.

Lysyk, T. J. 2001. Stomoxys calcitrans (L.), stable fly (Diptera: Muscidae). In P. Mason and J. Huber, (Eds.). Biological control programmes against insects & mites, weeds, and pathogens in Canada 1981-2000.

Lysyk, T. J., and K. D. Floate. 2001. Haematobia irritans (L.), horn fly (Diptera: Muscidae). In P. Mason and J. Huber, (Eds.). Biological control programmes against insects & mites, weeds, and pathogens in Canada 1981-2000.

Perotti, M.A., T. J. Lysyk, L. D. Kalischuk-Tymensen, L. J. Yanke, and L. B. Selinger. 2001. Growth and survival of immature Haematobia irritans (L.) (Diptera: Muscidae) is influenced by bacteria isolated from cattle manure and conspecific larvae. J. Med. Entomol. 38: 172-179.

Marcon, P., G.D. Thomas, B.D. Siegried & J.B. Campbell, 1997. Susceptibility of stable flies (Diptera: Muscidae) from Nebraska beef cattle feedlots to selected insecticides and comparison of 3 bioassay techniques. J. Econ. Entomol. 90: 293-298.

Marquez, J.G. & Krafsur, E.S. 1998. Mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms in cosmopolitan Musca domestica populations (Muscidae). Fourth International Congress of Dipterology, 6-13 September 1998, Keble College, Oxford. p 109-110 (Abstract).

Marquez, J. G., R. D. Moon and E. S. Krafsur. 2000. Genetic differentiation among populations of house flies (Diptera: Muscidae) breeding in a multiple-barn, egg-layer facility in central Minnesota. J. Med. Entomol. in press.

Marquez, J.G., Moon, R.D. & Krafsur, E.S. 2001. Genetic differentiation among populations of house flies (Diptera: Muscidae) breeding at a multiple barn, egg-laying facility in central Minnesota. J. Med. Entomol. 38: 218-222.

Martin, P. A. W., and E. T. Schmidtmann. 1998. Isolation of aerobic microbes from the vector of Lyme disease, Ixodes scapularis (Acari: Ixodidae), in the eastern United States. J. Econ. Entomol. 91: 864-868.

Moon, R. D., J. L. Hinton, S. D. O’Rourke and D. R. Schmidt. 2001. Nutritional value of fresh and composted poultry manure for house fly (Diptera: Muscidae) larvae. J. Econ. Entomol. (In press).

Miller, R. W. and Schmidtmann, E. T. 1996. Urine-delivery of cyromazine for suppressing house and stable flies (Diptera: Muscidae) in outdoor dairy calf hutches. J. Econ. Entomol. 89: 689-694.

Mullens, B.A., N.C. Hinkle and C.E. Szijj. 1996. Role of the poultry manure pad in manure drying and its potential relationship to filth fly control. Journal of Agricultural Entomology 13(4): 331-337.

Mullens, B.A., N.C. Hinkle and C.E. Szijj. 1996. Impact of alternating manure removal schedules on pest flies (Diptera: Muscidae) and associated predators (Coleoptera: Histeridae, Staphylinidae; Acarina: Macrochelidae) in caged-layer poultry manure in southern California. Journal of Economic Entomology 89(6): 1406-1417.

Mullens, B. A., N. C. Hinkle and C. E. Szijj. 2000. Monitoring northern fowl mites (Acari: Macronyssidae) in caged laying hens: feasibility of an egg-based sampling system. Journal of Economic Entomology 93(3): 1045-1054.

Mullens, B. A., N. C. Hinkle, D. R. Kuney and C. E. Szijj. 2001. Manure management and predator conservation affect fly control in caged-layer poultry systems. Calif. Agr. (in press).

Mullens, B. A., N. C. Hinkle, L. J. Robinson and C. E. Szijj. 2001. Dispersal of northern fowl mites, Ornithonyssus sylviarum, among hens in an experimental poultry house. Journal of Applied Poultry Research 10: 60-64.

Nordstrom, P. A., Wilson, L. L., Richards, M. J., Kelsey, T. W. and Pitts, C. W. 2000. Self-perceptions and self-assessments of livestock producers in Pennsylvania. The Professional Animal Scientist. 15:156-163.

Oi, F. M. and N. C. Hinkle. 1997. Biorational approaches to urban pest management. J. Agric. Entomol. 14: 227-229.

Perez de Leon, A. A., D. O'Toole, E. T. Schmidtmann, R. G. Titus, R. G., and W. J. Tabachnick. 1997. Insect blood feeding and the transmission of orbiviruses and vesiculoviruses. Proc. U.S. Anim. Health Assoc. 101: 29-34.

Pitts, C. W., P. C. Tobin, B. Weidenboerner, P. H. Patterson, and E. S. Lorenz. 1998. In-house composting to reduce larval house fly, Musca domestica L., populations. J. Appl. Poultry Res. 7: 180-188.

Ratcliffe, S.T. 1999. Assessments of parasitism of house fly and stable fly pupae (Diptera: Muscidae) by pteromalid (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae) parasitoids using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Ph.D. Thesis, Univ. of Ill., Urbana-Champaign. 74 pp. Under guidance of C. Jones and R. Weinzierl.

Schmidtmann, E. T., Schlater, J. L., Maupin, G. O., and Mertins, G. W. 1997. Vegetational associations of host-seeking adult blacklegged ticks, Ixodes scapularis, on dairy farms in northwestern Wisconsin. J. Dairy Sci. 81: 718-721.

Schmidtmann, E. T., Holbrook, F. R., Day, E., Tabachnick, W. J., and Taylor, T. 1998. The Culicoides variipennis complex (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) in Virginia. J. Med. Entomol. 35: 818-824.

Schmidtmann., E. T., J. F. Carroll, and D. W. Watson. 1998. Attachment-site patterns of adult blacklegged ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) on white-tailed deer and horses. J. Med. Entomol. 35: 59-63.

Schmidtmann, E. T, Tabachnick, W. J., Hunt, G. H., and Thompson, L. H. 1999. 1995 epizootic of vesicular stomatitis in the western United States: an entomologic perspective. J. Med. Entomol. 36: 1-7.

Schmidtmann, E. T. 1999. Biting midges, black flies and eye gnats associated with companion animals, In F. Knapp and N. Hinkle [eds.], Arthropod pests of companion animals. Entomol. Soc. Am.

Schmidtmann, E. T. 2000. Flies, horses and vesicular stomatitis. Proc. Int. Symp. Ectoparasites of Pets. Vol 4:1-9.

Schmidtmann, E. T., Bobian, R. J., and Belden, R. P. 2000. Soil chemistries define aquatic habitats with immature populations of the Culicoides variipennis complex (Diptera: Ceratopogonidae) J. Med. Entomol 37: 58-64.

Schmidtmann, E. T. Testing the relationship between dissolved salts and aquatic habitats occupied by larval populations of the Culicoides variipennis complex. (Manuscript in preparation)

Schmidtmann, E. T., M. Craig, M. English and M. V. Herrero. Sampling for sand flies (Diptera:Psychodidae) among prairie dog colonies on ranches with histories of vesicular stomatitis in livestock. (Manuscript submitted for ARS review).

Schmidtmann, E. T., Lloyd, J. E., Bobian, R. B., Kumar, R., Waggoner, J. W., Tabachnick, W. J., and Legg, D. L.. Repellency effects of permethrin for protecting livestock from blood feeding by mosquitoes and black flies (Diptera:Culicidae, Simuliidae). (Manuscript submitted to Journal of Medical Entomology).

Skoda, S. R., G.D. Thomas & J.B. Campbell. 1996. Comparison of core sampling and pupal traps for monitoring stable flies and house flies (Diptera: Muscidae) in beef feedlot pens. J. Econ. Entomol. 89: 428-434.

Scott, J.G., T.G. Alefantis, P.E. Kaufman and D.A. Rutz. 2000. Insecticide resistance in house flies from caged-layer poultry facilities. Pest Manag. Sci. 56: 1-7.

Sheppard, D. C. and B. Swedlund. 2000. Toxicity of individual pyrethrin esters to house flies (Diptera: Muscidae). J. Entomol. Sci. 35: 279-282.

Sheppard, D. C. and B. Swedlund. 2000. Toxicity of individual pyrethrin esters to house flies (Diptera: Muscidae). J. Entomol. Sci. 35: 279-282.

Strickland, G. T., Trivedi, I, Watkins, S., Clothier, M, Grant, J., Morgan, E., Schmidtmann, E., and Burkot, T. 1996. Cluster of Lyme disease cases at a summer camp in Kent County, Maryland, Emerging Infect. Dis. 2: 44-46.

Strother, K. O. and C. D. Steelman. 2001. Spatial analysis of Alphitobius diaperinus (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) in broiler production facilities. Environ. Entomol. in press.

Tomberlin, J. K., W. K. Reeves and D. C. Sheppard. In Press. First record of Chrysomya megacephala (Diptera: Calliphoridae) in Georgia, U.S.A. Florida Entomol. in press.

Torres, P. R., A. Balbi, D. C. Sheppard, O. H. Prieto, J. L. Nunez. 1996. Resistencia de la mosca de los cuernos Haematobia irritans al fenvalerato en al provincia de Corrientes, Argentina. Revista de Medicina Vet. 77: 136-140.

Waldron, J. K., P. E. Kaufman and D. W. Watson. 2000a. IPM for managing barn flies, northeast region agriculture teaching module. In Woodsen, M., C. Koplinka-Loehr, J.K Waldron, and J. R. VanKirk. Northeast Region Integrated Pest Management and Integrated Crop Management Teaching Modules. (http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ipmnet/sare.mod/flies.pdf)

Waldron, J.K., Watson, D.W., P. E. Kaufman, and D. A. Rutz. 2000b. Integrated fly management around confined livestock. Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. (videotape).

Watson, D. W., P. Kaufman, D. A. Rutz, and C. S. Glenister. (2001). Impact of the lesser mealworm, Alphitobius diaperinus (Panzer), on the establishment of the predaceous beetle, Carcinops pumilio Erichson, for the control of house fly, Musca domestica in caged layer poultry houses. Biological Control. 20: 8-15.

Weinland, N, J. Mariner, E. Schmidtmann, and A. Seitzinger. 2000. Bluetongue Survey Pilot Project. Proc. U.S. Animal Health Assoc. (In press)

Zurek, L., C. Schal, and D. W. Watson. (2000). Diversity and significance of the bacterial community in the intestinal tract of house fly larvae, Musca domestica L. (Diptera: Muscidae). J. Med. Entomol. 37: 924-928.